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to gain theoretical and practical understandings of schools as organizations (Achinstein, 2006)
and need help navigating the school site and the district. Mentors provide important information
about school routines and cultural norms (Bartell, 2005). Mentors help their mentees understand
teaching within the school culture by co-investigating curricula documents available to the
school. Mentors do not just focus on classroom-based learning; they also focus on organizational
contexts in which classrooms are embedded (Achinstein, 2006). Importantly, early-career
teachers seek specific direction regarding technicalities such as curriculum, school policies, state
standards, and student assessments (Grossman & Thompson, 2004). Mentors assist the mentees
to meet advocated standards by unpacking their teaching through the system requirements,
particularly through mandatory documents such as curriculum and policies that help to regulate
the quality of teaching practices (Hudson, 2007). The standards-based teacher evaluation system
is underpinned on a common conception of teaching, developed from empirical and theoretical
literature on effective teaching (Danielson, 1996; Danielson & McGreal, 2000).
Pedagogical knowledge
Shulman (1987) focused attention on the foundational importance of pedagogical content
knowledge, including categories of teacher knowledge such as classroom management, time
allocation, and planning as well as understanding of the common conceptions, misconceptions,
and difficulties that learners might encounter. Student teachers, similar to first year teachers,
acquire knowledge of their students, and develop routines and practices that integrate classroom
management and instruction (Kagan, 1992.)
Practical pedagogical knowledge translates into teaching practices that can demonstrate
skill levels. Assessing student teachers’ pedagogical knowledge is usually operationalized by
performance exams that are required for licensure. Danielson’s Framework for Teaching (2007)
is widely used as a way to assess teacher pedagogical knowledge. Based on a review and
synthesis of empirical and theoretical research on what teachers should know and be able to do in
the classroom, Danielson’s framework includes standards that focus on behavioral
responsibilities and competencies, rather than specific content or subject matter knowledge. For
example, learning activities, materials, and strategies must be aligned with instructional goals,
while appropriate to both the content and the students. Incorporation of formative assessment
strategies should provide diagnostic opportunities, allowing student teachers to make
adjustments during instruction. The Danielson framework provides a comprehensive assessment
of teaching practice, yet is general enough to apply to all subject areas and grade levels (Strong,
2005).
Modeling
The mentor’s modeling of teaching practice is extremely important to the mentee’s
development (Darling-Hammond et al., 2005). Effective mentors are often viewed as
instructional coaches and are models of best instructional practices themselves (Moir, 2009).
They are usually experienced professionals regarded as master teachers by their colleagues
(Trubowitz, 2004); however, mentor selection processes may not be as stringent in some schools
compared with others. Effective mentors model to the mentee teaching practices as tangible
evidence of what works and what may not work (Moir, 2009). Roehrig, Bohn, Turner, and
Pressley (2007) confirmed successful mentoring occurs when the mentor models effective
teaching practices. The quality of modeling and the opportunities for mentees to observe and